In the past twenty years adult education activities have expanded greatly in most European countries, through a wide range of institutions. At the same time, certain -often conflicting- trends regarding the aims and teaching methods of training programs have become apparent. Since the mid-1990s the dominant aim of the official bodies of the European Union has been the enhancement of employability, competitiveness, social cohesion and active participation in civic life. Also, great emphasis has been placed on the development of active teaching and learning methods, of social and communication skills, and of the ability to learn.
In Greece, in the same period of time, training programs have increased dramatically, mainly due to the significant funding of the European Union. However, the country was ill prepared for such a large-scale venture. As a result, shortcomings in the quality and organization of training programs were unavoidable. Nevertheless, some important steps towards the modernization of the field have indeed been made.

ADULT EDUCATION
IN EUROPE AND GREECE:
AN OPPORTUNITY FOR PROFESSIONAL AND PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT

Alexis Kokkos,
Associate Professor
of Adult Education,
Hellenic Open University

Abstract

First, the article examines the reasons behind the development of adult education and the forms of its development in the European Union in the past twenty years. Then, it examines the trends regarding the aims and teaching methods of training programs that have been developing within the official European Union bodies. It notes that, since the mid-1990s, emphasis has been placed on combining employability with social cohesion, as well as on developing active teaching and learning methods, social and communication skills, and the ability to learn. Following, the article examines the developments that have taken place in the field of adult education in Greece. It points out that a radical quantitative increase of activities has taken place, mainly due to the funding of the European Social Fund. Nevertheless, this increase in activities did not necessarily involve better or more effective programs, nor did it help clarify the desired goals. Moreover, the article reveals that the dominant views regarding teaching methods do not coincide with the predominant views held by the European Union bodies. However, it should be noted that during the past couple of years some progress has been made in Greece towards the direction of better organized adult education programs.

1. Introduction

In the past twenty years adult education activities have expanded greatly in most European countries, through a wide range of institutions. At the same time, certain -often conflicting- trends regarding the aims and teaching methods of training programs have become apparent. Since the mid-1990s the dominant aim of the official bodies of the European Union has been the enhancement of employability, competitiveness, social cohesion and active participation in civic life. Also, great emphasis has been placed on the development of active teaching and learning methods, of social and communication skills, and of the ability to learn.
In Greece, in the same period of time, training programs have increased dramatically, mainly due to the significant funding of the European Union. However, the country was ill prepared for such a large-scale venture. As a result, shortcomings in the quality and organization of training programs were unavoidable. Nevertheless, some important steps towards the modernization of the field have indeed been made.
The purpose of the present article is: 1) to examine the reasons that have instigated development, as well as the forms of development of adult education in Europe during the past couple of decades, 2) to look critically into the trends that have been developing within formal European Union bodies, as regards the aims and teaching methods of training programs, 3) to examine thoroughly and interpret the special characteristics of the situation in Greece in recent years (i.e., forms and aims of adult education activities, methodology of programs), and 4) to carry out comparisons of the extent to which the dominant trends in Greece relate to the ones that have been developing within the various European Union bodies.

2. The expansion of Adult Education in Europe

2.1. Activities and institutions

Since the beginning of the 1980s, adult education developed rapidly in all European countries as with the rest of the world. In the 1990s all these activities absorbed well over 1.5% of the Gross National Product in some countries, such as Austria, Switzerland, Norway, Finland (Edwards R. et al., 1996: 28). In 1998, 10% of the adult population (who have graduated Secondary Education) between the ages of 25-64 in the European Community had participated in training programs during the past month (European Commission, 2001: 8).
The forms of adult education programs in European countries, as well as in the entire world vary. Alan Rogers (1996, 21) has summarized them into the following categories:

TABLE 1
FORMS OF ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAMS
a) Programs leading to a degree. (Offered by institutions of the country's formal education system).
b) Vocational training programs that do not lead to typical degrees. (Targeted at unemployed people or employees; they take various forms and durations and are offered by many institutions).
c) Programs leading to acquisition of basic skills. (Targeted at culturally disadvantaged social groups; they offer basic training).
d) Programs aimed at personal growth. (Covering a wide range of subjects, such as handicraft, arts, sports, professional orientation, preventive medicine, history and so on).
e) Programs aimed at social growth. (Targeted at specific population groups with the aim of enhancing their social role, for instance, parental counselling, women counselling, counselling of union trades members etc.).

The expanse of educational institutions offering adult education programs is also great. There are formal educational institutions (Universities, High Schools), various vocational training institutions (it should be noted that the commercial training agencies are constantly growing), cultural institutions that may or may not offer adult education programs in an exclusive basis (museums, libraries, art schools), as well as organisations with no direct educational structure that offer adult education programs among their other activities (corporations, union trades, syndicates, public utilities). However, observation reveals that in almost all European countries, only institutions that have persuaded the community of their quality and efficient work succeed in establishing their good reputation over time. It is with such institutions that public services, local councils and businesses cooperate with regularly.

2.2. The reasons of the development

The reasons that led to this multidimensional development of adult education during the past twenty years, are directly related to the needs that gradually emerge within two basic social levels: the economo-technological and the socio-cultural (Kokkos A., 1999).
On the economo-technological level, rapid changes have occurred globally. The deregulation of global commerce and the rise of global competition, in connection with the successive technological advances, led to the need for modernisation of national economies and the overall enhancement of productivity. One of the basic prerequisites for achieving these goals is the radical change in the forms of employment. Constant updating of methods, specialisation in novel specialties and adaptation of employment to the evolving circumstances is required. This results in the need to improve the services offered by employees, as well as constant adaptation to the developing professional context. This becomes even more imperative because of the rapid devaluation of professional skills, which are due to the continuous scientific and technological advances.
On the other hand, these same economic and technological changes drive a big part of the workforce to unemployment, particularly people with insufficient educational background. Naturally, training is once again considered as part of the solution.
On the socio-cultural level, equally important changes are taking place, which in their turn create needs for education. Firstly, the sweeping population movements create the need for the social integration of immigrants, repatriates and refugees. Secondly, the growing awareness of social exclusion affecting certain population groups, such as ethnic and cultural minorities, prisoners and ex prisoners, people with special needs, drug addicts etc., poses the need for finding ways for them to be able to fully integrate into the social and cultural zeitgeist. Thirdly, traditional social structures (family, social relations, local communities, collective organisations), as well as long-standing and deep-seated values underwent a major crisis during the past decades. As a consequence, individuals are required to define their own course of action through conditions of uncertainty. This situation drives individuals to seek an educational foundation to aid them with their journey. Fourth, the ever-increasing participation of women in the workforce stretches the need not only for their (re) training but also for the learning of the couple as a unit, aiding them to face the changes creatively. Fifth, nowadays more and more people can and want to spend their free time somewhat differently than 15 -20 years ago. They often search for creative and systematic (educational type) activities. The trend for personal growth and continuing education will augment in the years to come and will affect all age groups. It is not a coincidence that in Great Britain today, one of the major governmental priorities in adult education concerns elderly people (Learning and Skills Council, 2001).
Because of the aforementioned reasons, social demand for continuing education and vocational training is currently growing. Every adult, at various stages of his/her life, needs to have access to new, general and special knowledge and skills that will allow him/her to actively participate in multiple fields, to develop, to adapt to changes, to be self-determined.
Yet, all these do not entail a strategy that covers for all needs at the same degree in every country. Particular political and economical goals, which are determined within every country's special context, result in varying characteristics and significance of the aims of adult education. In some cases emphasis is given on the vocational training, which aims at reducing unemployment rates and at improving employees' skills; in other cases, education that contributes to social coherence and elimination of social exclusion is prioritised; and in some other cases, political and ideological agendas manipulate adult education, as was the case during dictatorships in Greece.

3. Perceptions and trends in the European Union

3.1. The need for changed strategic goals in the 1990s

Now let us briefly examine the main perceptions and trends as they were formed during the past years in the European Union.
In the late 1980s, the economo-technological developments took European countries by surprise. These countries faced sudden changes associated with production and organisation of labour. Technology was rapidly substituting manual labour. This resulted in structural unemployment, lack of specialised manpower and devaluation of the existing employee skills. The governments of the time, which largely adopted liberal and conservative measures in order to face the arising situation, promoted vocational training programs related to employment. Long term training of unemployed people, as well as on the job training prevailed. In other words, adult education served the needs of economical competition and employability. It became a tool for enhancing the corporate adaptability and increasing the possibilities of job search and long-term employment.
However, it was not long before it became obvious that this one-sided approach of adult education for financial benefits was insufficient. The crucial issue was not to train people for specific jobs, because, firstly, these jobs were rapidly changing or even becoming obsolete. Secondly, specialised training did not view the individual as a whole and did not cover for the individual's deeper needs. This kind of training could not support the modern individual, who has faced constant changes and pressures both in the work place and in the private life, loses equilibrium every now and then, and as a consequence, loses his/her vigour, his/her will to get reorganised, reoriented. Indeed, today's European citizens are increasingly being driven by external developments. They become passive, defensive, individualistic, guarded by xenophobia, cease to be active citizens.
As it was expected, in the mid-1990s hazard sirens began to ring. The demand was pursued for greater emphasis on the individual's social needs, the enhancement of social bonding, greater participation in: politics, local communities, education and employment policies. It was evident that adult education was in the position to offer solutions, if only it ceased to be identified solely with specialisation and took on a wider role instead. That is, if it offered individuals not only technical skills, but also social skills, such as goal-setting, evaluation of alternatives, communication, cooperativeness, seeking of quality. And most importantly, if it offered the ability to produce new knowledge, that is "to learn how to learn", which would help everyone adapt to social changes and, as far as employment is concerned, create and recreate jobs.
In order for all of the above to be achieved, there should in one hand exist new, inclusive programs offering these social and learning skills. And on the other hand, training and educational programs should be enriched with these elements, a fact that entails a new logic in the designing of programs, based on principles of active learning, development of critical thought, action learning, open communication between the educator and the trainees. It also entails the transformation of the educator's role. He/she should transform from a disseminator of knowledge to a coordinator, facilitator, intermediate between the object of learning and the participants.
Another issue became evident that in order for the modern citizen to acquire all these qualifications, there should exist a synergy among adult education, the educational system as a whole, as well as informal training, i.e. physical activities associated with everyday life, social life and professional life, since it is within these latter activities that we acquire new knowledge and skills. Therefore, emphasis should be given to life-long learning, which is the synthesis of all the above complementary forms of learning.

3.2. The White Book and the Council Meetings of Lisbon and Nice

A first step towards these directions was made within the European Union in 1996; the year 1996 was proclaimed "the European Year of Lifelong Learning". At the same time the Committee published the "White Book: Teaching and Learning towards the learning society", which proposes new perspectives. Characteristically, the White Book makes reference to the following:

Education and training, now more than ever, will be the main components of the individual's identity, social progress and personal growth… The future of the European Union and its radiance will, in great part, stem from its ability to follow the trend towards the learning society. We will have to acquire the means for the development of the disposition towards life-long learning and training within the European Union.

(Commission Européenne, "Livre Blanc", 1995: 16-17)
However, this was but a step. It did not entail the radical change of perceptions, as well as of policies, which view adult education as serving primarily economical needs. In the following years, many discussions and confrontations took place. It seems that the conception of adult education and life-long learning have gained a place as major contributors towards not only the economic development and the development of employability, but equally towards the development of social cohesion and active citizenship.
The versatile nature of this issue was defined during the European Council Meeting held in Lisbon at Prime Minister level in March 2000. The goal to make the European Union the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based society within the next decade was then set. The development of networks for life-long learning was defined as the critical means for achieving this goal. In the ensuing presidency conclusions it was defined that overall European strategies should be based on the following:

• Ensuring overall and continual access to learning with the aim of acquiring and updating necessary knowledge required for the continuous participation in every aspect of modern social life.
• Tangible increase of investments in human resources in order to set priority to Europe's most valuable asset - its people.
• Development of effective teaching and learning methods, as well as development of the proper environment for continuing education.

(European Commission, "Memorandum concerning lifelong education", 2004: 4)
It is interesting to point out the clarifications of the Memorandum concerning the teaching and learning methods:

The educators' profession will undergo major changes in the decades to come: trainers and educators become guides, counsellors and intermediates. Their very important role is to help and support the trainees, who, within their power, are themselves responsible for their own education according to the principle of shared responsibility. The ability and courage for the development and implementation of open and widespread participation teaching and learning methods should become a basic professional skill of educators both within and outside the school environment. Besides, active learning requires motivation for learning, critical ability, as well as the ability to learn. It is the developing of these human abilities of acquiring and using knowledge that is central to the educator's role.

Then, the Nice European Council Meeting in December 2000 reaffirmed the Lisbon European Council conclusions and approved the European Social Agenda, at the heart of which is the development and expansion of life-long education, as well as improvement of its quality. (European Council, Nice, Presidential Conclusions, Annex I, 2000). Also in 2000, Action Programmes LEONARDO and SOCRATES 2000-2006 gave priority to the goals of combating unemployment and social exclusion and to facilitating the development (Künzel Kl., 2000: 206).
These conclusions reached by European Councils, as well as the ensuing Action Programmes, mark certain important developments.
Firstly, adult education, as a component of lifelong education, becomes a focal point of the European strategy.
Secondly, the importance of non-professional forms of education and training provided by social or cultural institutions, trade unions or political bodies, athletic unions etc., emerges next to formal training and education. Therefore, the importance of the whole spectrum of educational activities becomes evident.
And thirdly, efficiency of learning is connected to certain basic principles, on which adult education is founded: promoting of the economic growth and of social cohesion, active participation of the trainees, shared responsibility of the trainees, and development of their critical ability.
Simultaneously to these developments, the E.U. expressed its strong will to further promote the Information Technology. The first move was made in 1997 with the Council's of the European Union "Decision of the Information Society". Then, several important projects were funded with the same purpose, while PROMISE (Promoting the Information Society of Europe) has proven a powerful key-role institution within the Commission's Directorate General XXII (Künzel Kl., 2000: 208-209).

3.3. Contradictions and possibilities

However, it is common knowledge that the official declarations of the European Councils, just like the above, are often quite far from reality or are trying to embellish it, or are deformed in action, when it is time to be transformed into national policies. The fact that in recent European Councils and their ensuing Community measures, there are certain positive formulations does not entail the automatic improvement of adult education. Besides, conflicting forces within the European Councils, as well as within separate country members have not ceased to exist. The latent conflict and the emerging equilibrium regarding the character and the aims of lifelong education are evident, when comparing certain phrases in the text of Lisbon Presidential Conclusions. One can track the various contradictions. For instance, let us look at the order, in which the key words are formulated, in the following phrases:

Social integration is more important than paid labour.

The promotion of a) active participation in social life and b) promotion of employability are equally important and interlinked aims of lifelong education.

Europe can - and should - show that it is possible to simultaneously achieve a) economic growth and b) enhancement of social cohesion.

So, the out comings of adult education will be judged in action, based on the interrelation of social powers both at the European and, more importantly, at the national level. Social institutions, non-governmental bodies, private training companies (language schools, I.T. training companies, management consultancies, etc.) and the educators themselves will play a key role. The road is going to be long and winding. But, the fact that by now the role and the methods of adult education have been placed central stage is important.

4. The case in Greece

4.1. Historical overview

Let us now examine the course of adult education in Greece by setting out from a brief historical overview. As in many other countries, the first forms of adult education appeared at the end of the 19th century. It was then, that various cultural bodies organised literacy and general education classes for the first time. At the beginning of the 20th century, trade unions started organising classes for their members (Vergidis D., 1999: 12-13). More organised structures of adult education appeared during 1920-1940 (in the form of public night schools for the illiterate). In the early1950s, the state began organising training programs of provisional or simply professional character (targeted at farmers or handicraftsmen), which had acute politico-ideological characteristics. In the mid-1950s professional training activities began to develop by large industrial units, as well as by public institutions. The Ministry of Education organised classes for the illiterates, the Ministry of Agriculture provided agricultural training, the Greek Manpower Employment Organization (OAED) provided training to workers, and the Hellenic Centre for Productivity (ELKEPA) provided training to corporate members.
All these activities lacked range, although the need for education and training was already great, mainly because of the inability of formal education to respond to the demands of the labour market, the mass participation of women in the workforce, the presence of socially excluded groups and the increasing unemployment rate of younger people (see above: 27-28).

4.2. 1980-2000: the boom

However, when Greece became a member of the European Economic Community in 1981, the situation changed dramatically. There were now major funds being granted by the European Social Fund (E.S.F.) and everyone wanted a stake of the benefits.
The General Secretariat for Popular Education (today's General Secretariat for Adult Education) was founded, which, especially during its first years, set up thousands of learning groups, particularly in villages and small towns, with various training and pre-training programs, such as handicraft, agricultural production, social and cultural issues. It also developed programs for the repatriates, the illiterates, the gypsies, the prisoners and so on. The interesting fact about the General Secretariat is that it is one of the very few institutions in Greece that employs managerial personnel, who have elaborated in adult education principles and methods and are attempting to implement them into action.
By the mid 1980s, various other public and private institutions had begun working in this field. In fact, the amount of offered programs dramatically increased mainly due to the important funding programs on the part of the European Community through the First Community Support Framework (1989-1993). But Greece was ill prepared for the venture. There was no central planning, no coordinating body, nor compound legal framework to define suitable institutions and proper standards for education. Therefore, various institutions, usually neither qualified nor effective, actualised a multitude of programs, while, at the same time, an overlap of roles and a waste of resources was observed.
Faced with this situation, the European Committee demanded stricter standards for the programs, and most importantly, that institutions providing training should be accredited. On the other hand, the funding continued through the Second Community Support Framework (1994-1999).
During this period, a number of regulations on the part of the government helped to improve the situation to some extent. Firstly, the National Accreditation Centre of Vocational Training Structures and Accompanying Services (E.KE.PIS.) was founded, which undertook responsibility of evaluation and accreditation of the institutions, of the programs and the educators of continuing vocational training. Today, accreditation of Vocational Training Centres (K.E.K) has been completed, as well as accreditation of Accompanying Services Centres (KE.S.Y.Y), the latter focusing on susceptible social groups. Only these two categories of institutions are entitled to implement training programs, which are funded by the E.S.F. and are coordinated by the Ministry of Labour. Yet, this regulation did not suffice. As we shall see, there are many other adult education programs, funded or not by the E.S.F., that are implemented by a multitude of institutions, non-accredited by the E.KE.PIS.
A second regulation established the institution of the National Observatory for Employment, with the aim to study the needs of the labour market on human resources, and to define the professions particular to those needs. At the same time, Centres for the Promotion of Employment were created in every Prefecture of the country in order to provide vocational orientation services and jobs to unemployed people. Finally, during the same period (1994-1999), the General Secretariat For The Management of European Funds of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs tried to rationalise the distribution of funds targeted at adult education, to set an evaluation system for the programs, as well as to promote interventions in favour of the susceptible social groups.
Of course, all the aforementioned regulations were necessary, yet, they are still at their infant stage of implementation and it will take time before they become fruitful.
So, at the end of the 1990s the governmental regulations were proven insufficient to substantially improve the situation. Under this light, it is not surprising that in the year 2000 the European Committee made recommendations towards Greece. According to the press release given by the Commissioner Anna Diamantopoulou, the most significant problems still pending are: lack of strategic planning and the low quality of programs. Let us look at the Recommendation:

Greece should adopt an overall strategy for lifelong education, including goal definition; it should further improve the quality of education and vocational training, in order to enhance the workforce's qualifications. (Greek press, 6/9/2000).

4.3. Qualitative characteristics of the programs

Let us now examine in detail the reasons behind the poor quality of the programs. Of course, this is largely due to the hastiness and rampant procedures, with which the available funding had to be absorbed under the tolerance of the government. On the other hand a decisive feature is the lack of properly trained managerial personnel. Up until now, anyone can become an adult educator, whether or not one has proper training and/or relevant job experience. Usually, the educators provide services that do not follow proper standards, firstly because they have not been properly trained and secondly because they unconsciously reproduce their own training experiences from the formal educational system, that usually reflects traditional and teacher-focused perceptions. According to the dominant pedagogical views in Greece, education is organised so that the educator conveys his/her knowledge to the trainee through oral presentation. The educator teaches and the trainee listens. The teaching is based on only one book, which, for the primary and secondary education, is defined by the state, whereas, for tertiary education, is defined by the professor.
A group of experts from the O.E.C.D. evaluated the situation in 1995, following the Ministry's of Education request; the consequences were committed to paper:

The educators are drawn away from their profession because of a nationally defined program, which leaves no room for initiatives or development (…). There is an emphasis on classical teaching that favourites theory instead of practice. The teaching methods do not prepare for further learning associated with practice (…). In the universities many students get "trained" rather than "educated" because of the teaching material, which is based on one textbook only.

And the general conclusion the paper reaches is that:

The present educational system prioritises non-creative and unilateral teaching methods that inhibit initiative and creativity.

(O.E.C.D., 1995, par. 43, 57, 62, 63).
Therefore, it is not unusual that the field of adult education also lacks innovative elements, and that proper teaching methods are not used, nor are current trends related to the multidimensional development of participants utilized. Revealing, at this point, are the findings of a pan European survey, entitled "Eurodelphi 95-Future Goals and Policies of Adult Education in Europe", which was carried out in the mid-1990s in 16 countries (Vergidis D., Karalis Th., 1995). The survey studied the views of hundreds of adult education specialists regarding the situation in their respective countries. Among the various questions, there was one of crucial importance: to what degree they felt, that innovations in adult education have taken place in their countries. As we can see in Table 2, Greek specialists feel that innovations have been made mainly in computer aided learning, as well as in dissemination of vocational skills. On the contrary end -and this differentiates Greece from other European countries- it seems that few innovations have been made in issues regarding: a) development of the trainees' social skills (social training, communication skills) b) overall personality growth and c) learning how to learn.

TABLE 2

Source: Vergidis D., Karalis Th., 1996: 24
It is therefore concluded that Greece is far apart from other European country practices regarding these issues, as well as from the Lisbon Conclusions, which stressed the importance of developing exactly these social and learning skills.
4.4. Recent developments and predictions for future trends
However, if one closely examines the processes that have been initiated during the past two years, one concludes that some positive developments have been made.
Firstly, the E.KE.PIS. has registered about 18,000 educators according to their teaching experience, and the Ministry of Labour declared that these educators would be systematically trained and afterwards accredited.
Secondly, the General Secretariat For The Management of European Funds took several measures in order to improve the quality of the training programs. Characteristically, in the Secretariat's declaration concerning the new Operational Program "Employment and Vocational Training", the institutions are constantly suggested to follow methods, which develop active participation and learning by doing. Such a statement makes its appearance for the first time in a state document.
Thirdly, the General Secretariat for Adult Education promotes a system for training focused on new skills, and especially learning skills.
Fourth, for the first time studies on adult education have been instituted on a university level. There is the Unit for Further Education and Training at the University of Patras, a special program of graduate studies exists at the University of Macedonia, and a postgraduate program at the Hellenic Open University. We should also add that, lately, an ever-increasing number of adult education specialists self-driven enrich their qualifications either by attending seminars, or by self-educating, based on their own work experience, their own reading, their participation to international networks and benchmarking activities.
Fifth, the Ministries of Labour and Education set up a joint Committee for the elaboration of the National System for the Connection of Initial and Continuing Education to Employment. The main goal is to develop procedures that will allow the compound and composed implementation of the national state policy concerning both recording of the labour market needs, as well as the offered education. A main feature of the System is to institute mechanisms that will promote the accreditation of qualifications and skills that are obtained by all forms of vocational training and professional experience. The Committee has already published a complete action plan, which was mutually accepted by the social partners and both Ministries have committed to its implementation.
Finally, the participation of adults in various educational and training programs is increasing. This stems either from their personal need to take advantage of services offering education at some point in their lives, and/or from their respective institutions' need for modernization, and/or from European and national policies, which give incentives to various population groups for education and training. Let us now focus on these participatory tendencies of adults, because they will allow us to understand and, to some extent, predict the future structural changes in the field.
Let us first examine how many and who are going to participate in the training programs funded by the Third Community Support Framework (2000-2006).

TABLE 3

Educators
Computer trainees
Radial Operational
Programs trainees
Community Initiative
EQUAL (innovative actions)

ADULTS WHO WILL PARTICIPATE IN TRAINING PROGRAMS FUNDED BY THE THIRD COMMUNITY SUPPORT FRAMEWORK
ADULT CATEGORIES	PREDICTION FOR THE YEARS 2000-6	AVAILABLE DATA FOR THE YEARS 1994-9
Unemployed	125.000	178.000
Civil servants	100.000	43.000
Healthcare staff (Mainly civil servants)	32.500	100.000
Private-run business personnel (mainly small or medium	46.500	137.416
Self-employed (mainly primary and secondary sector)	70.000
Disadvantaged population groups	11.200
Trainees in Institutes of Vocational Training (I.E.K.)	85.000
Educators	8.000
Computer trainees	365.000
Radial Operational Programs trainees	35.000
Community Initiative EQUAL (innovative actions)	6.000
TOTAL	884.200
All of the above categories will be trained in the following Operational Programs: 1. O.P. "Employment and Vocational Training" 2. O.P. "Education and Initial Vocational Training" 3. O.P. "Information Society" 4. O.P. "Competition" 5. O.P. "Healthcare" 6. O.P. "Radial Operational Programs" Sources: a) Ministry of Labour -General Secretariat For The Management of European Funds, 2001; b) Operational Program Employment and Vocational Training, 2001; c) Institute of Labour/Greek General Confederation of Labour, 2000: 60.

As it is shown in Table 3, 884 thousand people will participate, that represent about 20% of the population group between 25-64 years old.
By comparing certain features relative to what was going on during the period 1994-9, certain trends begin to surface, that reflect the strategy of the main funding source, i.e. the European Social Fund.
Firstly, less unemployed people will be trained in comparison with the period 1994-9. This can be explained through current policies that deal with unemployment. Almost all European countries, do not give any more emphasis on training unemployed people; it is doubtful that training will lead unemployed people to employment due to the many obstacles involved. Unemployed people can be better supported through alternative employment policies, such as vocational orientation, tailor-made integration planning, subsidization and other motives given to companies for hiring people. The findings of a recent research carried out in Spain are characteristic. The unemployed people themselves feel that what they mostly need is consultation and vocational guidance rather than training (Greek National Employment Observatory, 2000: 4). This trend is expected to dominate in Greece as well, given the fact that mechanisms for employment enhancement are gradually increasing, whereas they were practically non-existent some years ago.
Secondly, the intervention of the European Social Fund is dramatically decreased when it comes to training people in the private sector. Once again, we observe the dominant European trend of supporting corporations through overall developmental measures, and at the same time of charging them with the responsibility to train their personnel. An exception is made for small or medium enterprises, which do not possess know how and proper facilities for training. It should be noted that, according to a survey carried out in the mid-1990s, the participation of employees of Greek small or medium businesses to training programs was as low as 11%, while in companies with more than 250 employees, participation reached 75% (PRISMA, 1996: 4). In addition, during recent years large companies in Greece, especially Banks, increasingly develop training programs, whether they are funded or not. For instance, in 2000, the National Bank of Greece with 15,000 employees had 18,000 participations in training programs; almost all employees have been trained, some more than once (National Bank of Greece, 2001: 10).
Thirdly, the funding for training self-employed people is decreasing, because it is assumed that they should undertake the responsibility for their professional development. At the opposite end, training of civil servants is increasing, possibly because it is commonly believed that the Greek public sector needs modernization.
Finally, the number of participants in computer skills training programs, which first appeared during the years 2000-2006, is impressive.
All these developments mark radical changes in the field, where only accredited bodies, such as Vocational Training Centres, used to provide services. These bodies felt certain that they would undertake some programs (regardless of the amount) funded by the European Social Fund that focused on unemployed people or corporate employees. Yet, gradually this type of funding is dwindling, while reversibly self-funded or subsidized programs on computer skills are increasing; such programs can be carried out by any institution, not just Vocational Training Centres.
The message is clear. Vocational Training Centres will have to strengthen and enrich their services, in order to be able to keep up in the free market.
Let us now move forward and examine the predicted participation in vocational or non-vocational training programs, which are organised by other institutions, besides Vocational Training Centres, and which are not funded (or are partly funded) by the E.S.F. The participating institutions, whether private or public, that implement these programs, are many in Greece. The catalogue in Table 4 is indicative.

TABLE 4

INSTITUTIONS (BESIDES VOCATIONAL TRAINING CENTRES) OF ADULT EDUCATION FUNDED OR PARTIALLY FUNDED BY THE E.S.F.,
WHICH CARRY OUT VOCATIONAL TRAINING PROGRAMS OR
NON VOCATIONAL TRAINING PROGRAMS

• Hellenic Open University
• Prefecture Committees of Public Training (funded by the General Secretariat for Adult Education)
• Corporations
• Chambers, Scientific Unions, Unions
• Centres of Studies, Colleges, Schools
• Cultural institutions (Unions, Local Councils)
• Computer Skills Training Institutions
• Foreign Languages Centers
• Universities carrying out training programs
• Athletic Unions
• Political Parties
• Trade Unions
• Parental Training Institutions
  
  So, we are dealing with a field, which is constantly changing and expanding. There are no data on most of these institutions and a relevant survey would be of great interest. However, we can easily assume that the total number of the participants amounts to several hundreds of thousands, a number that possibly exceeds the total amount of participants presented in Table 3.

5. Epilogue

In Greece, the field of adult education is developing. There is great social demand and for a few more years adult education will be funded by the E.S.F. However, it has not yet modulated stable structures and has no reputable institutions, in contrast to most European countries. It is still characterised by its fluidity, ambiguous quality and low efficiency, mainly because of the sudden expanse without prior strategies, the know how or proper training of the specialists.
On the other hand, recently there have been steps towards coordination and quality. Therefore, certain structures and standards are gradually being established; this will possibly bring Greece to the level of other European countries, where adult education developed earlier. Institutions and people there survived and were granted recognition, following an upward spiral, after they persuaded everyone for their efficiency. It is possible that the same will happen in Greece. Those who will work with persistence and quality in this field have many possibilities to consolidate their position and to offer services that will positively affect society as a whole.

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